Part 6 (chapters 6-1 and 6-2) presents a new pulsar model and a new white dwarf model.

[August 2004: Mass and radius of pulsars are two hard-sought properties of pulsars²⁴². Thus pulsars can be much bigger than expected right now by big bang astronomers. End August 2004]

Pulsars have a iron/nickel crust⁶⁰. As mentioned above with Cygnus X-1: elements may process into higher elements than iron by nuclear fusion under very strong gravitational contraction.

Somewhere in the nucleus or around the nucleus may be an area that can become active under certain heat/pressure. Thus the following may happen: when an object contracts under gravitational contraction then at a certain point, when heat and pressure are high enough, a certain endothermic (higher elements than iron processing into even higher elements) reaction may occur, thus cooling the dark matter object. This cooling makes the endothermic reaction end, after which gravitational pressure and heat builds up again until the same reaction is triggered again, etc.
[February 2004: Another possibility: an exothermic reaction by elements lighter than iron (for instance 2 silicon atoms fusing into one iron atom) happens, thus building up heat and pressure, until the heat and pressure becomes so big that an endothermic reaction starts, for instance 4 iron atoms fusing into one lead atom; after which the endothermic reaction can start again, etc. The basic concept of the in this chapter described pulsar model is: you have a mechanism that heats (i.e. gravity or an exothermic reaction) and this mechanism triggers a mechanism that cools (i.e. an endothermic reaction); such a combination is suggested to produce pulses. End February 2004]

Such endothermic reactions may absorb (low energy) photons (there are very many CBR photons), like the exothermic reactions of fusing elements lighter than iron emit photons. Low energy protons can penetrate deeply into matter.
[February 2004: With an exothermic reaction, emitting photons, as well as an endothermic reaction, absorbing photons, both going on in a pulsar, the exothermic reaction may deliver photons and energy for the endothermic reaction. End February 2004]
This may give a mechanism in an infinite universe that recycles photons back into baryonic matter (and heavy element nuclei may break down into HII by radio-loud activity of AGNs, see 5-2).
[February 2004: Such processes of heavy elements fusing into heavier elements than iron while absorbing photons may be likely to happen in all kind of celestial objects. Thus not only pulsars may be at work turning photons (and energy, for instance in the form of gravitons/gravity particles) back into baryonic matter. And: elements like iron fusing into heavier elements may be the cooling mechanism of the Universe (4-2). End February 2004]

When this process of heating up and cooling down can go very quickly and very exactly (where frequency/time is concerned) then perhaps this way the features of pulsars can be explained: pulses by heating up and cooling down, the pulses send out at the peak of the heat, the pulses thus being caused by black body thermal radiation of the heated up pulsar.
Radio pulses may be caused by electrons being send out by the heated pulsar, thus causing radio waves by synchrotron radiation (6-1).
[April 22 2007: Recently brown dwarfs have been discovered putting out extremely bright pulses of radio waves, much like pulsars. A research team observed a set of brown dwarfs last year, and found that three of the objects emit extremely strong, repeating pulses of radio waves. Big bang astronomers now think brown dwarfs may be a missing link between pulsars and planets in our own Solar System, which also emit radio waves, but more weakly than brown dwarfs. The scientists think that the radio waves rae produced by a mechanism also seen at work in planets, including Jupiter and Earth. This process involves electrons interacting with the planet's magnetic field to produce radio waves that then are amplified, or strengthened, by natural masers that amplify radio waves the same way a laser amplifies light waves. The brown dwarfs the team observed are between planets and pulsars in the strength of their radio emissions. While they don't think the mechanism that's producing the radio waves in brown dwarfs is exactly the same as that producing pulsar radio emissions, they think there may be enough similarities that further study of brown dwarfs may help unlock some of the mysteries about how pulsars work. While pulsars produce observed pulses typically several times a second to hundreds of times a second, the brown dwarfs observed are showing pulses roughly once every two to three hours⁴⁵⁰.
Next to pulsars (6-1) a lot of other celestial objects may have pulsar mechanisms that too are not due to the rotation and hence “lighthouse beams” of the objects (6-1). End April 22 2007]

Such a black body radiation model (at least for higher frequency wavelengths) of pulsars would explain why the pulse-peaks of pulsars are sharp at high temperature radiation and less sharp with radiation that has a lower temperature: higher temperatures have shorter time periods because of fast(er) cooling down.
It may also explain why sometimes there are gamma pulses, X-ray pulses and radio pulses, but no optical pulses. Perhaps the heat is so strong that gamma ray and X-ray pulses are seen, but no optical pulses. Radio pulses are seen then because of electrons emitting synchrotron radiation.
There are also pulsars that have X-ray and gamma ray pulses, but no radio pulses. Perhaps those pulsars don't rotate or hardly rotate, thus they have no magnetic field and hence emit no radio pulses by synchrotron radiation.
[February 2004: When they don't rotate or hardly rotate then the contraction by gravity is stronger (no centrifugal forces), which then may explain the high energy (X-ray/gamma) radiation. End February 2004]

[May 2004: Astronomers have made the first direct measurement of a pulsar's magnetic field. Direct measurement showed that the magnetic field of the pulsar 1E1207.4-5209 is 30 times weaker than predictions based on the indirect methods based on theoretical (big bang) assumptions about pulsars. Astronomers can measure the rate at which the time period between two succeeding pulses grows. They have always assumed that friction between its magnetic field and its surroundings was the cause. In this case, their only conclusion is that something else is pulling on the (big bang) neutron star¹⁰⁶.
The here presented pulsar model gives another explanation of the pulse periods becoming longer in time and so a weak magnetic field is no problem for the here presented pulsar model. Instead it is a confirmation of the here presented model, because in the here presented model pulsars don't have to spin (very) fast and so a much weaker magnetic field (than predicted so far by big bang astronomers) is a confirmation. In fact, low(er) magnetic fields were predicted on this website for radio-quiet X-ray and gamma ray pulsars (6-1). The 1E1207.4-5209 pulsar is a radio-quiet X-ray pulsar¹⁰⁹. End May 2004]

Radio wave pulses caused by synchrotron radiation may explain why pulses at radio wavelengths show peaks at a little different moment in the pulse intervals and why those radio peaks are so much “spread evenly” (i.e. “hills” rather than peaks) compared to the high energy pulses: electrons producing synchrotron radiation make different pulses than dark matter producing radiation peaks by thermal black body radiation.
Though these observations also may be explained with the conventional science explanation called dispersion: interaction of the photons coming from the pulsar with electrons in the line-of-sight to the pulsar, photons with longer wavelengths are slowed down more this way.

When the reaction-region is not exactly in the very core of a pulsar nor that the region is found in a certain shell (with everywhere exactly the same distance to the center) around the core and if a pulsar has a certain rotation then the pulses won't come after exactly the same time-intervals when one observes the pulses over 10 repeating pulses, but the time-interval between pulses becomes very accurate when one looks at them over millions of pulses, because then the effect by rotation is flattened out. For the same reasons the pulsar peaks may be irregular in shape.
[February 2004: If so, then it may be possible to get the rotation rate of the pulsar out of the “time-interval pattern”. End February 2004]

A certain area within the nucleus with elements being processed into higher elements will slowly get exhausted and thus the endothermic-reaction-region slowly displaces itself away from the nucleus of the dark matter object (= pulsar) to a more outer region in the object. This would mean that the gravitational contraction becomes a little less strong and thus it will take more time to build up the heat and pressure before a new reaction starts. Thus it may be that the pulse periods become a little larger, i.e. it may explain the spindown rates of pulsars.

[September 10 2005: Pulsars in binary star systems can speed up with the help from a companion star. For the first time ever, this speeding-up has been observed. There is direct evidence for the pulsar IGR J00291+5934 pulsing faster whilst cannibalizing its companion, something which no one had ever seen before for such a system. A pulsar can remove gas from its companion star in a process called “accretion”. The flow of gas onto the pulsar makes the pulsar pulse faster and faster³⁶⁴. With more material on the pulsar stronger gravitational forces make the pulsar pulse faster. End September 10 2005]

In high energy pulsars with a high speed of “burning” the endothermic-reaction-region displaces itself faster away from the nucleus of the pulsar and thus the spindown rate of high energy pulsars may be faster. Millisecond pulsars with a lower speed of “burning” then will have a lower spindown rate.

Also: it is often observed that pulse periods become a little longer until at a certain moment the pulse period shortens (a so-called “glitch” event), after which it starts to become longer again (the reason for the glitches is unknown so far). This may be explained by: the old reaction-region becomes so exhausted that another deeper region with slightly different chemical composition (lower concentration of the “fuel”; thus higher pressure/temperature is needed) triggers off with a shorter pulse period, after which the region where the reactions take place slowly move outward again, thus explaining that pulse periods become larger again.

Perhaps that over very (explaining the fact that it is not observed (yet)) long times pulse periods may become shorter: if new elements (i.e. heavier elements) start to “burn” this will need stronger pressure and higher temperatures. But also: the pulsar has gotten more higher elements because of the former fusion into such higher elements and thus may stronger pressure and temperature cause the pulsar to build up pressure and temperature faster, thus going to shorter periods (with also faster cooling down: higher temperature and pressure trigger faster reactions of the new (higher) element(s), see also Fig. 6-1-I). Thus the pulses may become less hot, i.e. the pulsar will send out pulses with colder (blackbody) radiation. This may mean that normal pulsars may evolve into millisecond pulsars (6-1).

There may also be two regions where certain endothermic reactions take place at (almost) the same time. This may explain smaller pulses next to a main pulse. The other area producing a smaller pulse may “exhaust” in another way than the region producing the main pulse and this may cause subpulse movement.

[May 3 2005: Perhaps there can also be many small regions. Or perhaps that heat from different places within the core or from different places within a layer surrounding the core, can be tunneled along certain ways to the surface. This way hot spots on (what big bang astronomers address as) neutron stars may be explained. The recently for the first time observed hot spots are very different in size, which is causing trouble for big bang astronomers, who can't explain the very different sizes of the hot spots³³¹. End May 3 2005]

Recently a team of astronomers claims to have discovered that powerful radio bursts in pulsars can be generated by structures as small as a beach ball. The small size of these regions is inconsistent with all but one proposed theory for how the radio emission is generated⁶¹.
The research team studied the pulsar at the center of the Crab Nebula, more than 6,000 light-years from Earth. The researchers discovered that some of the “giant” pulses contain subpulses that last no longer than two nanoseconds. That means, they say, that the regions in which these subpulses are generated can be no larger than about two feet across -- the distance that light could travel in two nanoseconds.
Perhaps this severe problem in current pulsar lighthouse models can be solved when the above described mechanism of heating up/cooling down produces the subpulses.

A few pulsars have two or more stable emission patterns, and switch, apparently at random, between the two emission “modes”⁶². This may be possible if there are two different reaction-regions that can “take over” from each other: at a certain moment a certain region needs that much (gravitational) pressure/heat that the other region takes over for a while, until that other region needs so much pressure/heat that the other region can take over again, etc. The region that is “taking over” is the region that triggers off a reaction first, thus cooling down the pulsar and thus the other region won't trigger off.

Magnetic fields of pulsars were expected to decay in the lighthouse pulsar model. It turned out that magnetic fields of pulsars are constant⁶⁰.
In the here described pulsar model without rotation causing the pulses the magnetic fields are constant.

When a pulsar is produced during a supernova out of a collapsing star that is part of a binary system, then the pulsar may get “thrown out” of the binary system because it has lost its outer layers: the remaining pulsar may have gotten such a high density that the binary partner looses its gravitational grip on the pulsar (with pushing gravity, 3-2). This may explain the high space velocities of pulsars. It may also explain why there are less binary pulsars than might be expected from studies of binary stars⁶².
Also: pulsars have high densities and thus there is less inertial resistance by gravity particles (3-2), which may also contribute to high speed velocities of pulsars.
Pulsars with high speeds (and also white dwarfs, 6-2) may flow out of galaxies, which then may partly explain dark matter objects in intergalactic space.

Pulse transmissions may be interrupted for seconds. When resumed, varying parameters continue from where they have left off. This is called pulse nulling. Perhaps dark matter objects passing in front of the pulsar can explain pulse nulling.

Matthew Young⁶³ found that the pulsar PSR J1244-3933 has a radio pulse period of 8.5 seconds. This is impossible according to current pulsar models. With the here described model there is no problem with a pulse period of 8.5 s (5-2).

[July 11 2006: Recently a neutron star was found to have an emission varying with a cycle that repeats itself every 6.7 hours. This is an astonishingly long period, tens of thousands of times longer than big bang scientists expected. The scientists don't have a conclusive answer to what is causing the long cycles⁴²⁷. [July 24 2007: New research has confirmed the 6.7 hours cycle of the (object that big bang astronomers call a) neutron star⁴⁶⁰. End July 24 2007]
There is a stable variation repeating every 10 hours in the Wolf-Rayet star WR123 (6-1). Pulsars may be like stars in a way, thus having (long) pulsations like stars every now and then.
Like there may be no sharp line between planets, stars and white dwarfs, there also may be no sharp line between stars, white dwarfs and pulsars. It all depends on the amount of matter and the elements within that matter, thus slowly an object may first be a planet, then become a star (7-1), then become a white dwarf (6-2) and finally become a pulsar (6-1). End July 11 2006]

[May 2004: When big bang astronomers show pulsar models they draw nice pictures of two light cones coming from a pulsar. Also so-called “artist's concepts” of pulsars show light cones^{99, 101}. But I have never seen such a double light cone on actual pictures/observations of pulsars, which is something one would expect to see sometimes with the big bang light house model for pulsars (with two pulsar edge-on beams lightning up surrounding gas). Pulsars will be seen relatively easy when the Earth is in the path of the light cone, i.e. when we see the pulsar face-on. But pulsars can be relatively nearby and my guess is that by now we should have observed an edge-on pulsar double cone. As far as I know this has never been observed.

The here presented pulsar model may explain in a simple way the firehose-like jet discovered in action coming from the Vela pulsar¹⁰² when on takes in mind the explanation of radio loud AGNs in 5-2. The outer jet of particles of the Vela pulsar may be originated by the explosion of a concentration of an element like uranium at a certain spot inside the pulsar. End May 2004]

[July 2004: The Boomerang Nebula is one of the Universe's peculiar places. In 1995, using the 15-meter Swedish ESO Submillimeter Telescope in Chile, astronomers Sahai and Nyman revealed that it is the coldest place in the Universe found so far (February 2003). With a temperature of -272 degrees C, it is only 1 degree warmer than absolute zero. Even the -270 degrees C microwave background radiation is warmer than this nebula. It is the only object found so far that has a temperature lower than the background radiation²¹⁵.
Somehow there has to be a cooling down process going on explaining the low temperatures of the Boomerang Nebula. Perhaps that a cooling down mechanism with elements fusing into elements higher than iron may be something to consider here. Perhaps the merging of two (or more) stars can account for the Boomerang Nebula. The nebula has two “bow tie” lobes expanding from the central region. Perhaps that two dark matter objects of the two (or more) original stars have merged, thus starting up a cooling down process by fusing elements into elements higher than iron. The gasses of the stars fall towards the new and bigger heavy element core of the new object and thus may be spit out again bipolar, thus accounting for the lobes.
Also the merging of multiple dark matter objects within an infalling cloud of gas may have originated the Boomerang Nebula. End July 2004]

[September 3 2007: Big bang astronomers have studied a spectral line from hot iron atoms of neutron stars. They found that the iron line is broadened asymmetrically. The researchers think that the asymmetric broadening is caused because the iron atoms whirl around in a disk just beyond the neutron star's surface at 40 percent the speed of light. Asymmetric lines have been found for black holes too. This is the first confirmation that neutron stars can produce them as well. The astronomers think that it shows some similarity between neutron stars and black holes. They think that both objects accrete matter in a similar way⁴⁶⁸.
I think that there may be some similarity indeed between “black holes” (or rather: AGNs) and neutron stars (which do not consist of neutrons in my opinion). AGNs and neutron stars both may have gas going to and fro the object because of: pushing by photons coming from the object and gravity pull by the object (5-1). Hence the broadening of the lines. The lines then may be asymmetric because the objects rotate with a certain speed. Iron atoms going around an object with 40 percent the speed of light is hard to believe for me. End September 3 2007]

This may also explain why the pulsating remnants of supernovae, like the Crab Nebula pulsar and the Vela pulsar, are not millisecond pulsars. Those pulsars descend from supernovae and so perhaps they do rotate fast and hence don't contract very fast.

But perhaps there are other ways to explain millisecond pulsars. As mentioned above: normal pulsars may evolve into millisecond pulsars (6-1).
The larger the average density of a Cepheid the shorter the pulsation period. This may be the case with pulsars too: by burning elements into higher elements the density of pulsars grows larger, which triggers faster gravitational contraction which then may lead to shorter pulse periods.

Most of the millisecond pulsars are considered to be very old⁶⁰. This then would fit into the here described way of looking at pulsars. I wonder what can happen if a (very old) pulsar gravitationally contracts, heats up, but no endothermic reaction starts because a certain element is exhausted. Perhaps this can bring a (Type Ia super)nova. But perhaps some pulsars may go to a point where a lot of (for example) uranium is produced in the core and perhaps this uranium can explode, which then may produce a (Type Ia) supernova (5-2). Type Ia supernovae coming to existence this way may explain the absence of hydrogen or helium lines in Type Ia supernovae optical spectra as well that it may explain why all Ia's have virtually the same luminosity. Type Ia supernovae occur in ellipticals as well as in spirals and are associated with stars roughly the mass of the Sun and are therefore a puzzle (for it is hard to see how a solar-mass star can detonate as violently as a supernovae). A lot of uranium may explode within a pulsar, thus explaining the relatively small amount of mass detonating so violently.
[February 2004: If the pulses are caused by an exothermic reaction (instead of heat by gravitational contraction) in combination with an endothermic reaction then perhaps it is possible that the pulsar cools down and becomes a dark matter object when it runs out of the element that causes the exothermic reaction. Perhaps this way some pulsars may become white dwarfs (with no hydrogen or helium coat). End February 2004]
[May 2004: If the heat of pulsars comes from gravitational contraction then, if no endothermic reaction happens anymore, a dark matter object may become hot by gravitational contraction. When the dark matter object won't detonate into a Type Ia supernovae, as suggested above, then perhaps it is possible that dark matter objects can glow by gravitational contraction at a certain temperature, which may explain white dwarfs (6-2) or mysterious hot (X-ray producing) brown dwarfs¹¹⁴ (X-rays from brown dwarfs can be explained in a different way too, 7-1). End May 2004]
[July 2004: One then may wonder how the heat is produced, i.e. from what “mass” does the heat come from. Perhaps gravity particles can produce heat, i.e. gravity particles are absorbed and (finally, in a way) get spit out as a photon again, see also 3-2. End July 2004]

[January 23 2006: The surface of the star Alpha Centauri B pulsates in and out by very tiny amounts - only a dozen metres or so every four minutes³⁸⁸. Perhaps a pulsar quality in the star is responsible for this. End January 23 2006]

If strong concentration of dark matter can raise pulsar qualities then cores of certain stars may have certain pulsar qualities too, which may explain the variability of certain variable star types, like ZZ Ceti Stars, RR Lyrae stars, Cepheids or Dwarf Cepheids. Perhaps such stars can be progenitors of pulsars (6-2, 7-1).

[May 28 2005: Wolf-Rayet stars have long been known to exhibit complex - seemingly chaotic - brightness variations associated with the turbulent high-speed winds they eject into space. But the nearly continuous coverage possible with the MOST (Microvariability and Oscillations of Stars) satellite has revealed a clock in the chaos - a stable variation repeating every 10 hours in the Wolf-Rayet star WR123. Finding a clock in a star like WR123 is like finding the Rosetta stone for astronomers studying massive stars, researchers say. However, although WR123 may vary like clockwork, it must be a very strange mechanism indeed. According to big bang astronomers the only theories to explain the 10-hour clock in WR123 would be: (1) the rotation of the star itself, (2) the orbit of another small star around WR123, or (3) vibrations in the structure of WR123 that are transmitted to its dense enveloping wind. All of these ideas are considered equally strange³³⁴.
Perhaps that a pulsar quality as mentioned in this chapter can be an explanation of the 10 hours variation in WR123.
However, if the star is in a tight binary system, as mentioned above with explanation (2), it's so tight that its companion would be orbiting inside the star itself. If pulsations are the right answer, theoreticians will have to completely revise their current understanding of this class of massive stars³³⁴. It is mentioned on this website that stars may come to existence by dark matter objects assembling hydrogen (7-1). Such dark matter objects may be a binary dark matter system to, which then may account for explanation (2). End May 28 2005]

It is said that in every red giant there is a white dwarf waiting to get out (perhaps not only in red giants, 6-2). Perhaps in some stars there is a pulsar waiting to get out. Though pulsars may also come to existence when multiple stars (for instance a globular or open cluster) collapse (causing a supernovae, 5-2)

[June 2004: The North Star, Polaris, is a low-amplitude classical Cepheid with a pulsation period of 3.97 days. Polaris is noteworthy among cepheids because its pulsation period and light amplitude are rapidly changing with time. From over 100 years of observations, an increase in its apparent period of dP/dt = +3.51 sec/yr and a decrease in light amplitude have been found. Its light variation has decreased from ~0.15 mag (visual) in the 1900s to a minimum value of 0.020 mag during the mid-1990s. However, recent photometry, from 2001-2004, indicates its light(V) amplitude is again increasing and is 0.038 mag during 2004.
There is another remarkable characteristic of Polaris. Analysis of all available 20th century photometry indicates that the mean brightness of Polaris has increased from about V ~ +2.12 mag, in the 1900s, to the current high value of = +1.95 mag. Investigation of Polaris' brightness with all available historical sources including measurements by Ptolemy, Al Sufi, Tycho, Uleg Beg, Tycho Brahe, Herschel and many 19th century measures, has shown that there is strong evidence that Polaris has increased in brightness by more than 1 mag over the last two millennia¹⁴⁸.
The here mentioned characteristics of Polaris are an unsolved puzzle for big bang astronomers.
Perhaps that there is a heavy metal core with pulsar qualities within Polaris while at the same time the star has gas fusion going on in the gas surrounding the heavy metal core. Gravitational shielding (3-2) by the outer layers of gas may cause the core to pulsate relatively slowly (compared to regular pulsars). Exhausting of the element(s) that bring endothermic reactions in the core may cause increase of Polaris' apparent period. A new endothermic reaction with other (more available) elements in the core may explain why the light variation changed from decreasing until the 1990s to increasing. Overall exhausting of elements that cool down the core may have brought the overall increase in brightness over the last two millennia. End June 2004]

[June 13 2005: Optical and X-ray observations of J0806 showed periodic variations of 321.5 seconds, barely more than five minutes. According to big bang astronomers the observation in J0806 is most likely the orbital period of a binary white dwarf system. However the possibility that it represents the spin of one of its white dwarfs cannot be completely ruled out. “It's either the most compact binary known or one of the most unusual systems we've ever seen. Either way it's got a great story to tell,” the big bang researchers say³³⁶.
Two white dwarfs orbiting each other in 5 minutes is extremely fast. Perhaps that a pulsar quality as described on this webpage can explain the periodic variations of J0806 in a simpler way. End June 13 2005]